Psalms — Introduction & Outline

The historical superscriptions offer the best and only certain indication of the authorship of most of the Psalms. The authenticity of these superscriptions has been questioned by those who object to the earlier dates they assign, but there is abundant evidence that the superscriptions are truthful. In addition, the superscriptions may relate information about the type of psalm, the musical instruments involved, the melody used, liturgical uses, and historical background.

According to the title inscriptions, seven authors are identified. Almost half (seventy- three) are designated as Davidic (3-9; 11-32; 34-41; 51-65; 68-70; 86; 101; 103; 108-110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138-145). In addition, the New Testament reveals David also wrote the anonymous psalms 2 and 95 (Acts 4:25; Heb. 4:7) making his a total of seventy-five, or half of the total collection. Asaph, a post-exilic priest in charge of music (Ezra 2:41), is designated as the author of twelve psalms (50; 73-83). Ten psalms (42; 44-49; 84-85; 87) are attributed to the sons of Korah, a guild of musicians (Num. 26:9-11). King Solomon wrote two psalms (72; 127) and one psalm each is attributed to Moses (90), the wise man Heman the Ezrahite (88; cf. 1 Kings 4:31; 1 Chr. 15:17,19), and the wise man Ethan the Ezrahite (89; cf. 1 Kings 4:31; 1 Chr. 15:17,19). Some of the remaining anonymous psalms (1-2; 10; 33; 43; 66-67; 71; 91-100; 102; 104-107; 111-121; 123; 125-126; 128-130; 132; 134-137; 146-150) are traditionally attributed to Ezra, but David is likely author of some since his musical ability was prolific (2 Sam. 6:5; 23:1; 1 Chr. 13:8; 15:3-28; 16:4-43; 23:1-5,25).

The originations of the various psalms date from the time of Moses (c. 1440-1410 B.C.) to the return from the Babylonian captivity (c. 430 B.C.). Many were written during the reigns of David (1020-970 B.C.) and Solomon (970-931 B.C.). Fourteen psalms are anonymous but have superscriptions describing a historical setting around the time of David (3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51-52; 54; 56-57; 59; 60; 63; 142).

The compilation and formation of the Psalter was accomplished over several centuries. Individual psalms were written and used in Israel's worship, though some never found their way into the final collection (cf. Ex. 15:1-18; Ex. 15:21; Deut. 32:1-43; Judg. 5; 2 Sam. 1:17-27; Jonah 2). A number of small collections were eventually organized into groups such as the psalms of David, psalms of Asaph, or pilgrim songs (120-134). These anthologies gradually evolved into the five books of Psalms: Book I (1-41); Book II (42-72); Book III (73-89); Book IV (90-106); and Book V (107-150). Each book closes with a doxology and Psalm 150 forms the doxology for the entire Psalter. The collection and editing of the five books involved at least three key figures in Israel's history who organized worship: David (1 Chr. 15:16); Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29:30); and Ezra (Nehemiah 8). The book of Psalms assumed its present form sometime after the return from exile probably at the hand of a single inspired editor. His finishing touch is seen in the use of Psalms 1 and 2 as an introduction and 145-150 as a grand finale.

The psalms were written under a wide and varying range of circumstances to many different audiences and thus reflect many different moods and themes. However, there are some general themes which appear throughout the Psalter. The political mood is very nationalistic and enemies of God and Israel are often the objects of the psalmist's imprecations. Religiously, the psalms present the conflict between good and evil and the people of God and the wicked. The psalmist often praises God for deliverance from enemies or recognizes God's intervention for His people. Sometimes the psalmist looks forward to the ultimate triumph of the Messianic kingdom.

The psalms had their practical purpose of use in Israel's worship and liturgy. The superscriptions give various liturgical indicators for occasion, proper use, instruments, or melody. Regardless of a psalm's original setting, it could and would be incorporated into the expression of Israel's worship.

The primary purpose for the psalms is to be a vehicle for the expression of God's people in worship. The psalms represent the response of an individual or nation to the person and work of God which results from reflection upon His program for His people. The psalms were written in recognition of God's gracious works in history and were then used to respond to God in worship. Some of the psalms also evoked worship for what God is yet to do through the coming Messiah. The psalms covered the whole range of human experience and emotion present in one's relationship to God, and thus became a useful songbook for Israel's worship on different occasions including temple worship, religious festivals, and local and national gatherings.

Psalms is the largest collection of religious lyric poetry in existence. Lyric poetry refers to short poems meant to be sung which express the thoughts and feelings of the author. The psalmist often drew from his experiences to find expression for man's need or God's provision. Since many time the emotions expressed are intense, lyric poetry is usually brief. Other major characteristics of lyric poetry are covered below.

Evocative_language. As lyric poetry, the Psalms use emotive or evocative language that concentrates the discourse. This language includes extensive use of symbols, images, figures, and emotive words and expressions. Some of the more common figures include simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole, apostrophe, metonymy, and synecdoche. Imagery often reflects the way of life in ancient Israel drawing from comparisons to military or agricultural life.

Meter_and_design. The individual psalms also show components of artistic design. One of these components is the use of meter. The Psalms evidence the use of meter and rhythm, although the exact patterns used by the Hebrews is hard to determine with certainty. The incorporation of meter gives the individual psalms an artistic quality of balance, harmony, variation, unity, and design. Only a few psalms arrange the poetry into stanzas or strophes, but the alphabetic acrostic design is used in some fashion in a number of psalms (9-10; 25; 34; 37; 111-112; 119; 145). This was perhaps used to aid in learning and memorization or simply to call attention to the beauty of the subject or passage.

Parallelism. This is the predominate feature of Hebrew poetry and is crucial to understanding the Psalms. This rhyme of thoughts instead of sounds is usually found in two or three lines and occasionally more. There are three basic types of poetic parallelism: synonymous, in which the second line repeats or echos the first (19:1); antithetic, in which the second line contrasts with the first (1:6); and synthetic, in which the second line completes or amplifies the first (19:7). Other less prominent types of parallelism include: analytic, in which the second line gives a consequence of the first (23:1); climactic, in which the second line repeats the first and brings it to a climax (29:1); and emblematic, in which the second line illustrates the figure presented in the first (103:11).

Musical_indicators. Lyric poetry was meant to be set to music, so the Psalms include many directions or musical indicators. The superscriptions are often directed "to the choirmaster" (eg. 44-47) who was probably the chief musician in charge of temple music. The "sons of Korah" (42; 44-49; 84; 87-88) could refer to the authors of these particular psalms or to the performers of music. Other headings indicate the instruments to be used (eg. 4; 5; 6; 8; 12; 46; 61) or the melody to be sung (eg. 22; 45; 56-59). Also, The term "selah" is found 71 times in the text of the Psalms, not in the superscription. It is thought to indicate a pause or interlude of some kind and may have been added later to these psalms.

Classification_of_Types

Form criticism, led by Hermann Gunkel, has helpfully identified different kinds of psalms which share common features and were perhaps used in common worship settings. Their classification is basically according to the form of their contents. Some of the more important types are characterized below.

Individual_laments. These psalms are basically the psalmist's personal cry for help out of a distressful situation (e.g. 6; 13; 31; 39). They have the following form: 1) Introductory cry to God; 2) Complaint describing the psalmist's lamentable state; 3) Confession of trust expressing confidence in God; 4) Petition or prayer for God's help; 5) Vow or expression of praise to God for answering the prayer.

National_laments. These psalms follow the same basic pattern as the individual laments only they tend to be shorter (e.g. 44; 60; 74; 79). They represent occasions when the nation faced a national crisis and together approached God with their lament and petition for help.

Thanksgiving_psalms. These psalms are also called psalms of declarative praise (e.g. 21; 30; 32; 34). Their arrangement is different from the laments: 1) Proclamation to praise God, usually expressed by "I will praise . . .; 2) Introductory statement of what God has done; 3) Report of deliverance in which the psalmist explains that he cried out, the Lord heard, and the Lord delivered him; 4) Renewed vow of praise where praise actually occurs; 5) Descriptive praise or instruction of others.

Descriptive_praise_psalms. Rather than describe a personal deliverance, these psalms praise God directly (e.g. 33; 36; 105; 111). Their form is much simpler: 1) Call to praise which invites others to praise God; 2) Cause for praise which usually gives a summary reason for praise in the grace and greatness of God and then amplifies this by specific illustrations; 3) Conclusion in the form of a new exhortation or call to praise.

Other_types. There are a number of other types of psalms which have distinguishing characteristics. The royal psalms (e.g. 2; 18; 20; 35) are distinguished more by function than by form. They refer to some high point in the king's career such as a coronation, wedding, or victory in battle. Wisdom psalms (e.g. 1; 37; 49; 119) reflect the characteristics of biblical wisdom literature. The enthronement psalms (e.g. 93; 96-97; 99) are distinguished by the phrase "YHWH reigns" which could refer to the future reign of the Messiah, the universal reign of God, the historical reign of God over Israel, or the reign of God celebrated in an annual "enthronement festival" (though this occasion lacks conclusive evidence). The pilgrim psalms are designated in the headings by "A song of ascents" (e.g. 120-134) which probably refers to Israel's "goings up" to worship in Jerusalem for the major religious festivals. The Psalms display an amazingly broad range of experiences and emotions which allowed them to be used in a great variety of ways in Israel's worship. In this way they became Israel's national hymnbook and vehicle of expression for their worship of God.